Antioxidant

An Antioxidant is a molecule capable of slowing or preventing the oxidation of other molecules. Oxidation is a chemical reaction that transfers electrons from a substance to an oxidizing agent.

Oxidation reactions can produce free radicals, which start chain reactions that damage cells. Antioxidants terminate these chain reactions by removing radical intermediates, and inhibit other oxidation reactions by being oxidized themselves. As a result, antioxidants are often reducing agents such as thiols or polyphenols.

Although oxidation reactions are crucial for life, they can also be damaging; hence, plants and animals maintain complex systems of multiple types of antioxidants, such as glutathione, vitamin C, and vitamin E as well as enzymes such as catalase, superoxide dismutase and various peroxidases.

Low levels of antioxidants, or inhibition of the antioxidant enzymes causes oxidative stress and may damage or kill cells.

As oxidative stress has been associated with the pathogenesis of many human diseases, the use of antioxidants in pharmacology is intensively studied, particularly as treatments for stroke and neurodegenerative diseases.

However, it is unknown whether oxidative stress is the cause or the consequence of such diseases.

Antioxidants are also widely used as ingredients in dietary supplements in the hope of maintaining health and preventing diseases such as cancer and coronary heart disease.

Although some studies have suggested antioxidant supplements have health benefits, other large clinical trials did not detect any benefit for the formulations tested, and excess supplementation may occasionally be harmful. In addition to these uses in medicine, antioxidants have many industrial uses, such as preservatives in food and cosmetics and preventing the degradation of rubber and gasoline.

Sources of Antioxidants

Ascorbic acid (VITAMIN C)

Ascorbic acid or "vitamin C" is a monosaccharide antioxidant found in both animals and plants. As it cannot be synthesised in humans and must be obtained from the diet, it is a vitamin.

Most other animals are able to produce this compound in their bodies and do not require it in their diets.In cells, it is maintained in its reduced form by reaction with glutathione, which can be catalysed by protein disulfide isomerase and glutaredoxins.

Ascorbic acid is a reducing agent and can reduce and thereby neutralize reactive oxygen species such as hydrogen peroxide. In addition to its direct antioxidant effects, ascorbic acid is also a substrate for the antioxidant enzyme ascorbate peroxidase, a function that is particularly important in stress resistance in plants.

Glutathione

The free radical mechanism of lipid peroxidation.

Glutathione is a cysteine-containing peptide found in most forms of aerobic life.It is not required in the diet and is instead synthesized in cells from its constituent amino acids.

Glutathione has antioxidant properties since the thiol group in its cysteine moiety is a reducing agent and can be reversibly oxidized and reduced. In cells, glutathione is maintained in the reduced form by the enzyme glutathione reductase and in turn reduces other metabolites and enzyme systems as well as reacting directly with oxidants.

Due to its high concentration and its central role in maintaining the cell's redox state, glutathione is one of the most important cellular antioxidants.

Melatonin

Melatonin is a powerful antioxidant that can easily cross cell membranes and the blood-brain barrier. Unlike other antioxidants, melatonin does not undergo redox cycling, which is the ability of a molecule to undergo repeated reduction and oxidation. Redox cycling may allow other antioxidants (such as vitamin C) to act as pro-oxidants and promote free radical formation.

Melatonin, once oxidized, cannot be reduced to its former state because it forms several stable end-products upon reacting with free radicals. Therefore, it has been referred to as a terminal (or suicidal) antioxidant.

Tocopherols and tocotrienols (vitamin E)

Vitamin E is the collective name for a set of eight related tocopherols and tocotrienols, which are fat-soluble antioxidant vitamins Of these, α-tocopherol has been most studied as it has the highest bioavailability, with the body preferentially absorbing and metabolising this form.

The α-tocopherol form is the most important lipid-soluble antioxidant and protects cell membranes against oxidation by reacting with the lipid radicals produced in the lipid peroxidation chain reaction.

This removes the free radical intermediates and prevents the propagation reaction from continuing. The oxidised α-tocopheroxyl radicals produced in this process may be recycled back to the active reduced form through reduction by ascorbate, retinol or ubiquinol.

The functions of the other forms of vitamin E are less well-studied, although γ-tocopherol is a nucleophile that may react with electrophilic mutagens, and tocotrienols may have a specialised role in neuroprotection.

Disease treatment

The brain is uniquely vulnerable to oxidative injury, due to its high metabolic rate and elevated levels of polyunsaturated lipids, the target of lipid peroxidation.

Consequently, antioxidants are commonly used as medications to treat various forms of brain injury. Here, superoxide dismutase mimetics, sodium thiopental and propofol are used to treat reperfusion injury and traumatic brain injury,while the experimental drug NXY-059 and ebselen are being applied in the treatment of stroke.

These compounds appear to prevent oxidative stress in neurons and prevent apoptosis and neurological damage. Antioxidants are also being investigated as possible treatments for neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis.



Disease prevention

Antioxidants can cancel out the cell-damaging effects of free radicals, and people who eat fruits and vegetables rich in polyphenols and anthocyanins have a lower risk of cancer, heart disease and some neurological diseases.

This observation suggested that these compounds might prevent conditions such as macular degeneration, suppressed immunity due to poor nutrition, and neurodegeneration, which are caused by oxidative stress.

However, despite the clear role of oxidative stress in cardiovascular disease, controlled studies using antioxidant vitamins have observed no clear reduction in the risk or progression of heart disease. This suggests that other substances in fruit and vegetables (possibly flavonoids) at least partially explain the better cardiovascular health of those who consume more fruit and vegetables.

It is thought that oxidation of low density lipoprotein in the blood contributes to heart disease, and initial observational studies found that people taking Vitamin E supplements had a lower risk of developing heart disease.

Consequently, at least seven large clinical trials were conducted to test the effects of antioxidant supplement with Vitamin E, in doses ranging from 50 to 600 mg per day. However, none of these trials found a statistically significant effect of Vitamin E on overall number of deaths or on deaths due to heart disease.

While several trials have investigated supplements with high doses of antioxidants, the "Supplémentation en Vitamines et Mineraux Antioxydants" (SU.VI.MAX) study tested the effect of supplementation with doses comparable to those in a healthy diet.

Over 12,500 French men and women took either low-dose antioxidants (120 mg of ascorbic acid, 30 mg of vitamin E, 6 mg of beta carotene, 100 μg of selenium, and 20 mg of zinc) or placebo pills for an average of 7.5 years.

The investigators found there was no statistically significant effect of the antioxidants on overall survival, cancer, or heart disease. However, a subgroup analysis showed a 31% reduction in the risk of cancer in men, but not women.

Many nutraceutical and health food companies now sell formulations of antioxidants as dietary supplements and these are widely used in industrialized countries.

These supplements may include specific antioxidant chemicals, like resveratrol (from grape seeds), combinations of antioxidants, like the "ACES" products that contain beta carotene (provitamin A), vitamin C, vitamin E and Selenium, or speciality herbs that are known to contain antioxidants such as green tea and jiaogulan. Although some levels of antioxidant vitamins and minerals in the diet are required for good health, there is considerable doubt as to whether antioxidant supplementation is beneficial, and if so, which antioxidant(s) are beneficial and in what amounts.


Physical exercise

During exercise, oxygen consumption can increase by a factor of more than 10.

This leads to a large increase in the production of oxidants and results in damage that contributes to muscular fatigue during and after exercise.

The inflammatory response that occurs after strenuous exercise is also associated with oxidative stress, especially in the 24 hours after an exercise session.

The immune system response to damage done by exercise peaks 2 to 7 days after exercise, the period during which adaptation resulting in greater fitness is greatest.

During this process, free radicals are produced by neutrophils to remove damaged tissue. As a result, excessive antioxidant levels have the potential to inhibit recovery and adaptation mechanisms.

The evidence for benefits from antioxidant supplementation in vigorous exercise is mixed.

There is strong evidence that one of the adaptations resulting from exercise is a strengthening of the body's antioxidant defenses, particularly the glutathione system, to deal with the increased oxidative stress.

It is possible that this effect may be to some extent protective against diseases which are associated with oxidative stress, which would provide a partial explanation for the lower incidence of major diseases and better health of those who undertake regular exercise.

However, no benefits to athletes are seen with vitamin A or E supplementation.

For example, despite its key role in preventing lipid membrane peroxidation, 6 weeks of vitamin E supplementation had no effect on muscle damage in ultramarathon runners.

Although there appears to be no increased requirement for vitamin C in athletes, there is some evidence that vitamin C supplementation increased the amount of intense exercise that can be done and vitamin C supplementation before strenuous exercise may reduce the amount of muscle damage.

However, other studies found no such effects, and some research suggests that supplementation with amounts as high as 1000 mg inhibits recovery.

Food preservatives

Antioxidants are used as food additives to help guard against food deterioration.

Exposure to oxygen and sunlight are the two main factors in the oxidation of food, so food is preserved by keeping in the dark and sealing it in containers or even coating it in wax, as with cucumbers.

However, as oxygen is also important for plant respiration, storing plant materials in anaerobic conditions produces unpleasant flavors and unappealing colors.

Consequently, packaging of fresh fruits and vegetables contains an ~8% oxygen atmosphere. Antioxidants are an especially important class of preservatives as, unlike bacterial or fungal spoilage, oxidation reactions still occur relatively rapidly in frozen or refrigerated food.

These preservatives include ascorbic acid (AA, E300), propyl gallate (PG, E310), tocopherols (E306), tertiary butylhydroquinone (TBHQ), butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA, E320) and butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT, E321).

The most common molecules attacked by oxidation are unsaturated fats; oxidation causes them to turn rancid.

Since oxidized lipids are often discolored and usually have unpleasant tastes such as metallic or sulfurous flavors, it is important to avoid oxidation in fat-rich foods. Thus, these foods are rarely preserved by drying; instead, they are preserved by smoking, salting or fermenting.

Even less fatty foods such as fruits are sprayed with sulfurous antioxidants prior to air drying. Oxidation is often catalyzed by metals, which is why fats such as butter should never be wrapped in aluminium foil or kept in metal containers.

Some fatty foods such as olive oil are partially protected from oxidation by their natural content of antioxidants, but remain sensitive to photooxidation.


Industrial uses

Some antioxidants are added to industrial products.

A common use is as stabilizers in fuels and lubricants to prevent oxidation, and in gasolines to prevent the polymerization that leads to the formation of engine-fouling residues.

They are also used to prevent the oxidative degradation of rubber, plastics and adhesives that causes a loss of strength and flexibility in these materials.

Antioxidant preservatives are also added to fat-based cosmetics such as lipstick and moisturizers to prevent rancidity.

FIBRE: ITS GOOD FOR YOU

Under the less trendy term 'roughage,' fibre enjoyed great respect among our grandparents, and during the 1970s its image was resurrected by British physician Dennis Burkett, who practised for many years in rural Africa.

He attributed the rarity of ailments such as hernias, hemorrhoids, diabetes, diverticulitis (small outpunchings of the large intestine), heart disease and bowel disease in that area to native diets rich in whole grains, seeds, roots, vegetables and nuts.

He blamed the high incidence of these disorders in Western countries on a lack of dietary fibre. Burkett's theories were enthusiastically adopted in the 1970s as the 'Bran Hypothesis'.

Many of us may remember the heyday of bran during the late 1970s and early 1980s with massive promotion of bran cereals and granola. Next came the oat bran craze, with oat products in all shapes and sizes flooding the market claiming to lower blood cholesterol and fight heart disease. A 1990's review of many studies examining the link between oats and health concluded that at best, oat cereals may modestly reduce blood cholesterol.

However, after a lull, oat cereals are again making headlines as the American Food and Drug Administration has permitted product labels to carry health claims that oatmeal and oat cereals may reduce the risk of heart disease - as part of a diet low in fat and cholesterol.

Although oat bran may be back, most dietary experts caution that no one fibre is better than others.

Neither oats nor wheat bran are the whole story. 'A spoonful of oats (or bran) a day' is no cure for many disorders. Most scientists agree that different types of fibre confer different health benefits for everyone, including seniors.

What Exactly is Fibre?

Traditionally, fibre was considered to be an inert part of food, passing undigested from mouth to anus and expelled intact in the stool.

This view has been revised and the term 'fibre' now encompasses complex carbohydrates and natural polymers such as cellulose and woody plant lignin, as well as pectin and various gums (guar, arabic, agar, carageen) and psyllium, and many others not yet identified. Far from being inert, different fibres exert different bodily effects.

Fibre is often divided into two broad classes: insoluble and soluble forms. Wheat bran, for instance, is an insoluble form that is a good stool-softener but a poor absorber of cholesterol, a function that the soluble form, oat bran, does better.

Insoluble fibre makes stools heavier and speeds their passage through the gut. Like a sponge, it absorbs many times its weight in water, swelling up and helping to eliminate feces and relieve constipation. Wheat bran and whole grains, as well as the skins of many fruits and vegetables, and seeds, are rich sources of insoluble fibre. High-fibre diets have replaced bland, low-residue treatments for bowel problems such as diverticular disease.

Also note that as the outer fibre layer is often removed in food processing by milling, peeling, boiling or extracting, it's wise to eat more unrefined foods to obtain insoluble fibre.

Soluble fibre includes pectin, gums (such as guar), betaglucans, some hemicellulose and other compounds and is found in oats, legumes (peas, kidney beans, lentils), some seeds, brown rice, barley, oats, fruits (such as apples), some green vegetables (such as broccoli) and potatoes.

Soluble fibre breaks down as it passes though the digestive tract, forming a gel that traps some substances related to high cholesterol. There is some evidence that soluble fibre may lessen heart disease risks by reducing the absorption of cholesterol into the bloodstream.

Studies find that people on high-fibre diets have lower total cholesterol levels and may be less likely to form harmful blood clots than those who consume less soluble fibre. A recent USA report found that, in sufficient amounts, fibre apparently reduced heart disease risks among men who ate more than 25 grams per day, compared to those consuming under 15 grams daily.

Benefit for Those with Diabetes

Soluble fibre in oat bran, legumes (dried beans of all kinds, peas and lentils), and pectin (from fruit, such as apples) and forms in root vegetables (such as carrots) is considered especially helpful for people with either form of diabetes. Soluble fibre may help control blood sugar by delaying gastric (stomach) emptying, retarding the entry of glucose into the bloodstream and lessening the postprandial (post-meal) rise in blood sugar.

It may lessen insulin requirements in those with type 1 diabetes. Because fibre slows the digestion of foods, it can help blunt the sudden spikes in blood glucose that may occur after a low-fibre meal. Such blood sugar peaks stimulate the pancreas to pump out more insulin. Some researchers believe that a lifetime of blood glucose spikes could contribute to type 2 diabetes, which typically strikes after the age of 40, and more than doubles the risk of stroke and heart disease.

The cholesterol-lowering effect of soluble fibres may also help those with diabetes by reducing heart disease risks.

How Much Fibre?

According to current guidelines, healthy adults should consume at least 26 grams of fibre - ideally 26 to 35 grams daily.

The present Canadian fibre intake only averages 4.5 to 11 grams a day. Health Canada suggests increasing this amount by eating more grains and unpeeled (but well-washed) fruit and vegetables.

Be sure to include both insoluble fibre and soluble types.

Another plus of a fibre-rich diet is that it provides plenty of vitamins and minerals, but it may be wise to consult a physician before greatly increasing dietary fibre intake and to ensure good nutritional status before making drastic alterations.

Initially, eating large quantities of fibre may cause bloating, but this should subside in a few weeks. It is best to increase amounts gradually.

Eating 26 grams of fibre daily may seem like a lot but can be obtained by having two fruits at breakfast-time (say a banana and raisins) with whole grain cereal, fruit as between-meal snacks, three to five servings of vegetables daily, and several bread and grain servings.

Note, however, that people with diabetes should watch their fruit intake.

The Benefits of Eating Fibre

Combats constipation

The most undisputed advantage of insoluble fibre is its ability to soften and expand stool volume, speeding up fecal transit and elimination.
Commercial preparations such as agar (Agarol) and psyllium (Metamucil) are effective stool bulkers.

Improves control

Soluble fibre from legumes, barley, oats, some fruit and vegetables can help regulate blood sugar swings and by lowering serum cholesterol, protect against heart disease.

Excess blood fats are possibly reduced by soluble fibres such as pectin, bean and oat gums, and the types in legumes (lentils, chickpeas, navy, pinto or kidney beans).

Heart health

May improve by diets rich in fibre, through its cholesterol lowering effects.

Possible protection against cancer

In the bowel, bacteria converts fibre into short chain fatty acids, which provide energy for the body and may help protect against cancer.


This article is taken from

June V. Engel PhD., is the Editor-in-chief of Health News, a publication of the University of Toronto's Faculty of Medicine.

Copied From: http://www.diabetes.ca/section_about/fibre.asp

Water and You

Why we need water?

We need water because it is a cleansing fluid. It cleanses our body, dilutes toxin and replenishes our body's water supply. Every process that occur in our body will produce a product. Some of them such as urea is toxic and must be excreted. water helps our body
to exrete toxins through urine and perspiration.

It also cools our body because water has a high specific heat capacity. It regulates our body temperature to make our body temperature at constant and optimal level.

Decrease of water in our body will result in dehydration and deoptimization of body system.
Particularly for the excretory and circulatory system.



Daily Water Requirements

The rule of thumb that you should drink eight 8-oz. glasses of water each day (a total of 64 ounces of water), actually describes the minimum amount of water that you should drink. Throughout the course of the day, your body loses water through sweating, exhaling, and elimination.

Hydration is the replacement of this lost water. Without adequate hydration, your body cannot perform many of its vital functions. Many factors, including your body size, activity level, and alcohol and caffeine consumption, determine exactly how much water you need to drink each day, which may be much more than the recommended minimum.

Exercise

Exercising can seriously deplete your body's hydration level, even in colder weather, through perspiration and respiration. You should drink at least two 8-oz. glasses of water two hours before, then another two glasses about twenty minutes
before you exercise.

During your workout, drink water every fifteen to twenty minutes. When you've finished your exercise, drink another 8-oz. glass of water within thirty minutes. This may be a difficult habit to establish, but persevere and you're sure to feel the benefits.

Alcohol and Caffeine Consumption

Beverages that contain alcohol or caffeine can actually decrease the amount of fluid in your body because they act as diuretics. Therefore, for every eight ounces of alcoholic or caffeinated beverages that you drink each day, you should also drink an
additional eight ounces of water.

Other Factors

Additional factors that may each increase your minimum daily water requirement by 8-16 ounces:

Being pregnant or nursing.
Temperatures over 80 degrees.
Very dry air/low humidity.
High altitudes (over 5000 feet).

Proper Hydration

Mild dehydration can lead to fatigue, muscle cramps, headaches, and constipation, while severe dehydration can eventually lead to death. You cannot rely on your level of thirst to determine whether or not you're properly hydrated. Oftentimes a lack of
proper hydration is mistaken for hunger pangs.

However, checking hydration levels is simple. As the body becomes more dehydrated, it produces darker yellow urine that may also have a strong odor. If your urine is pale yellow or clear, that indicates
adequate hydration.

BENEFITS OR HARM: A REVELATION OF ENERGY DRINKS

The Downsides of Bottled Water and Energy Drinks
Posted by Simeon Margolis, M.D., Ph.D.
on Thu, Sep 13, 2007, 10:32 pm PDT


In an earlier entry, I railed against the bogus health benefits of bottled waters such as Aquafina®, a Pepsi product that TV advertisements are now admitting is simply tap water that has been "filtered, filtered, and filtered" again, to remove the (harmless) impurities present in much cheaper tap water.

Next to appear on the supermarket shelves were additional unneeded bottled waters fortified with unneeded herbs and vitamins. In addition, the non-degradable plastic bottles containing these unneeded products add to the litter on streets and the problems associated with waste disposal.

The wisdom of using bottled waters may be questionable, but at least they don't pose the possible health risks of so-called "energy drinks." You've surely heard about these malevolent products, but probably haven't given them much thought.

"Energy drinks" were popularized in the U.S. with the 1997 introduction of Red Bull®, a carbonated beverage from Austria that contains 80 mg of caffeine in every bottle—about the same amount as is found in a cup of coffee. For comparison, classic Coca Cola® contains 23 mg caffeine and Mountain Dew® contains 37 mg caffeine.

Additional ingredients in Red Bull include two caloric sweeteners (glucose and sucrose), three non-caloric sweeteners, some B vitamins, and the same amount of the amino acid taurine as is found in a glass of red wine.

Other brands of "energy drinks" may contain twice as much or more caffeine as Red Bull, plus other questionable ingredients such as guarana — a South American caffeine-containing herb. (In 2005, the sales of "energy drinks" amounted to an estimated $3.5 billion.)
The calories in these drinks do provide some energy, but mostly their content of caffeine and taurine "soup up" one's feelings of alertness and may produce troublesome side effects such as anxiety, irritability, heart palpitations, difficulty sleeping, and indigestion.

These manifestations are more likely to occur with "energy drinks" than with coffee, which is usually drunk more slowly than the cooled "energy drinks." "Energy drinks" can also lead to dehydration because caffeine stimulates urination and thus increases water loss.

Yet another downside to "energy drinks": Because of their high caffeine content, they are frequently used by young people during nightlong parties as a mixer for vodka drinks.

And, quite predictably, many brewing companies have taken notice of this trend and are now selling "energy drinks" already laced with alcohol - carbonated malt beverages (beers) containing somewhat more alcohol than average beers, along with the caffeine, taurine, and other constituents of the non-alcoholic "energy drinks." The Marin Institute, self-described as a watchdog group for the alcohol industry, claims that 20 brands of alcoholic "energy drinks" have been marketed in the last 10 years.

Attorneys general from 28 states and the District of Columbia have issued harsh criticism of beverage companies that sell alcoholic "energy drinks." They ask that federal officials investigate the ingredients in these products because of their alcohol content and because of the advertising accompanying them, which targets underage customers with misleading claims of benefits, such as increases in energy and stamina.

One take-home message here is the need for greater awareness on the part of parents, teenagers, and young adults about the possible negative health effects of these popular beverages.

MINERALS

I found this on the net, and decided to post it here for your reference as it is very informative.
To the contributor i would like to extend appreciation and thanks.

http://your-doctor.com/patient_info/nutrition_supplements/minerals.html

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Specific minerals and what they do

In addition to vitamins your body also needs 15 minerals that help regulate cell function and provide structure for cells. Major minerals, in terms of amount present, include calcium, phosphorus, and magnesium. In addition, your body needs smaller amounts of chromium, copper, fluoride, iodine, iron, manganese, molybdenum, selenium, zinc, chloride, potassium and sodium.

Amounts needed for most of these minerals is quite small and excessive amounts can be toxic to your body.
___________________________________________________________________-

Calcium:A mineral important for strong teeth and bones and for muscle and nerve function. The major mineral constituent of bone.
sources: milk and milk products, fish with bones that are eaten, turnip and mustard greens, tofu, almonds and broccoli.
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Chloride: A mineral that regulates body fluid volume, concentration and acid-base balance. Balance intertwined with that of sodium.
sources: same as sodium
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Chromium: A mineral important in regulating blood glucose. Although chromium works with insulin to help your body use blood sugar, preliminary studies assessing the effect of chromium in the treatment of diabetes are controversial, and there's no proof chromium can prevent the disease. There's also no proof of the popular claims that taking chromium supplements can increase your muscle mass, help you lose weight, reduce cholesterol and prevent osteoporosis.
sources: brewer's yeast, whole grains and meats
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Copper: A mineral that is important for nerve function, bone maintenance, growth, blood formation and utilization of glucose.
sources: organ meats, sea foods, nuts and seeds.
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Fluoride: A mineral that is important to dental and bone health. Greatly improves resistance to cavitites
sources: fluoridated water, foods cooked in or containing fluoridated water, fish with bones that are eaten, and tea.
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Iodine: A mineral essential for the production of thyroid hormones.
sources: seafoods, iodized salt and foods containing iodized salt.
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Iron: A mineral that is an essential constituent of blood and muscle and important for the transport of oxygen. Certain groups can be at risk of having low iron levels. These include young children and early teens, women with heavy menses, women with multiple pregnancies, and people with conditions that cause internal bleeding, such as ulcers or intestinal diseases.

But for healthy men and postmenopausal women, iron deficiency is rare. In fact, one study suggested that high iron levels may increase risk of heart attack and atherosclerosis, although a link hasn't been proven. In addition, if you have the uncommon — but not rare — genetic disease hemochromatosis, iron supplements could cause a hazardous iron buildup in your body.
sources: liver, red meat, egg yolk, legumes, whole or enriched grains and dark green vegetables.
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Magnesium: A mineral found mainly inside muscles, soft tissues and bone. It functions in many enzyme processes.
sources: nuts, legumes, whole grains and green vegetables.
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Manganese: A mineral that is important for growth, reproduction, formation of bone, and carbohydrate metabolism.
sources: whole grains, fruits, vegetables and tea.
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Molybdenum: A mineral involved in many enzyme processes, nerve function and protein metabolism.
sources: milk, beans, breads and cereals.
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Phosphorus: A mineral essential to bone formation and maintenance, energy metabolism, nerve function and acid balance.
sources: meat, poultry, fish, eggs, dairy products and cereal products.
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Potassium: A mineral that is essential for nerve function, muscle contraction and maintenance of normal blood pressure.
sources: fruits and vegetables.
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Selenium: A mineral associated with antioxidant properties and fat metabolism. It has been claimed to help prevent cancer and cardiovascular disease. One recent study did suggest that selenium supplements may decrease cancer risk. However, more research is needed. Taking excessive amounts of selenium may cause hair and nail loss.
sources: seafoods and organ meats.
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Sodium: A mineral that regulates body fluid volume, concentration and acid-base
sources: table salt (sodium chloride), foods processed with table salt, milk, milk products, eggs and seafoods.
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Zinc: A mineral involved in wound healing, taste sensation, growth and sexual maturation and part of many enzymes regulating metabolism.

Some studies have also shown that taking a daily multivitamin-mineral supplement containing zinc may increase immune response in older people. However, other studies have shown just the opposite — that zinc may weaken the immune status of older people.

What is known is that megadoses of zinc can interfere with the way your body uses other essential minerals, such as iron and copper. And, excess zinc (more than 10 times the RDA) can lower HDL ("good") cholesterol levels.

sources: meat, liver, eggs and seafood (oysters).
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Resources

Dr Ardith Brundt: "HEC 131 - Introduction to Nutrition " Chapters 7 & 8 @: http://iweb.tntech.edu/abrunt/homework.htm

Mosbey's Medical & Nursing Dictionary, 1983:pp1140-1145.

"Vitamin and nutritional supplements- Sorting out fact from fiction amid a storm of controversy." From Mayo Clinic Health Letter @ http://www.mayohealth.org/mayo/9707/htm/me_jun97.htm

VITAMINS

Vitamins: How helpful are they?

Vitamins are just found in the early of 20th century. Its significance and importance were not emphasized until research found that it is just as essential as the other dietary components.

So what are Vitamins?

Vitamins are actually organic dietary compound that is not used by the body to produce energy. Unlike carbohydrates, proteins and lipids, vitamins' main roles is to preserve health in human body.

Vitamins cannot be produced by the body and thus we must get them mainly from food. Except for Vitamin D, which can be synthesized by the skin with the aid of sunlight.

Eventhough vitamins are essential, it is required only in small quantities. As small as it may seem, deficiency can lead to health complications in humans.

Requirements:

Vitamins are required in different proportions by different types of people. Men need more than women, babies, childrens, and adolescents all have specific needs and may required certain types of vitamins more or less than the others.

Types of Vitamins:

Vitamins can be classified in two groups:

1. Fat-soluble vitamins: A, D, E, K

2. Water-soluble vitamins: B vitamins, Vitamin C.

Functions of Vitamins:

Vitamin A
(also known as Retinol)

Vitamin A is very important in maintaining good sight. Deficiency may lead to night blindness or blindess in extreme cases. Vitamin A is also important in maintaining the integrity and health of membranes' lining, particularly the respiratory, digestive and urinary tracts.

Source of Vit. A: eggs, liver, beta carotene (carrot, red peppers, yellow coloured plants and vegetables, green leafy vegetables)

Excess beta carotene in the body can lead to carotenaemia - skin becomes pale an yellowish - but it is reversible when intake is decreased.

beta carotene is a type of Antioxidant, which is very important in combatting and preventing cancer.

Daily Requirement: 700 micrograms/day


Vitamin C
(also known as ascorbic acid)

Perhaps the most well known story of vitamin C is connected to the seaships, where barrels of oranges and citrus fruits were stored to prevent scurvy during long sea journeys.

Vitamin C is very important for formation of healthy skin (collagen), bones, cartilages, gums and teeth. It also helps to heal wounds and burns faster. It helps iron absorption in the body.
Like vitamin A, vitamin C is also an antioxidant.

Sources of Vit. C: Vegetables, Citrus fruits, kiwi, guava, strawberries.

Deficiency may lead to fatigue, loss of appetite, aching joints, scaly skin, sore gums, increased susceptibility to infections. Mental disorders and anaemia may appear in extreme cases.

Daily Requirement: 40 mg.


ALL the 8 Vitamin Bs

Vitamin B1
(also known as thiamin)

Thiamin acts by helping the body to convert carbohydrates, fats and alcohol into energy. it also helps to neutralize the toxic in human body.

sources of thiamin:
liver, heart, white bread, cereals potatoes and nuts.

Deficienty can lead to appetite loss, swelling of hands and legs, loss of sensation, mental confusion, muscle weakness.

Deficients are mostly heavy-alcoholics.

Daily requirement: 1 mg

Vitamin B2
(also known as riboflavin)

riboflavin acts almost like thiamin, which is to release energy from food, it acts with vitamin B6 and niacin to produce the beneficial effects in the body.

Sources of riboflavin:
milk, youghurt, eggs, meat, poultry, fish and fortified breakfast cereals.

Deficiency can lead to cracked, dry, scaly lips. inflamed, bloodshot eyes, inflammation fo the skin and fatigue due to anaemia.

Daily requirement: 1.3 mg



Vitamin B6
(also known as pyridoxine)

The functions of pyridoxine includes releasing energy for body consumption from proteins, it is also important for the formation of erythrocytes (red blood cells), the health of nervous system and optimising immune function.

Sources of pyridoxine:
Meat, poultry, eggs, fish, whole wheat bread and cereals, nuts, bananas, soya beans and yeast extract.

Deficiency is not common but it can be triggered by the usage of medicine used for fungal infection and tuberculosis. deficients may experience scaly skin.

daily requirement: 1.4 mg


Biotin

Biotin is needed to synthesize fatty acids and cholesterol, and needed in the metabolic processes which frees energy from food.

Sources of Biotin:
almost all food, liver, peanut butter, egg yolk.

Deficiency: Dermatitis and hair loss. it can be induced if raw egg whites are eaten regularly.

daily requirement: 10-200 mcg


Niacin
(also known as nicotinic acid)

Nicotinic acid is needed to produce energy in cells and to form chemical messengers in nervous system. It also helps in maintaining healthy skin and digestive system.

Sources of niacin:
lean meat, potatoes, nuts, cereals.

Deficiency may lead to tiredness, depression, pigmented skin rash, dermatitis and diarrhoea.

Excess may lead to skin appears flushed and liver damage.

Daily requirement: 17 mg


Pantothenic acid

Almost like pyridoxine, pantothenic acid is required to synthesize fats, cholesterol and red blood cells.

sources of panthotenic acid:
meat, vegetable foods, liver, dried fruits and nuts.

daily requirement: 3-7 mg




Folate
(also known as folic acid)


Folic acid is the more important side of vitamin B as it functions in formation of DNA, RNA and proteins in the body. it also helps cell division. Very impotant in pregnancy to help keeping fetus in healthy condition.

Sources of folate:
grean vegetables, liver, brussles sprouts, brocolli, wheatgerm and bread.

Deficiency of folate results in megaloblastic anaemia, wasting of the gut leading to malabsorption of nutrients. It is linked with the neural tube defects in fetus,

Daily requirement: 200 mg


Vitamin B12
(also known as cyanbalamin)

Just as folate, cyanobalamin is required in synthesizing DNA, RNA, and myelin. It also helps transports folate into cell. Vital in the formation of red blood cells.

Sources of vitamin B12:
meat, poultry, fish, soya bean.

Deficiency may lead to tiredness, megaloblastic anaemia, pins and needles and loss of sensation in limbs, degeneration of nervous system.

Daily requirement: 1.5 mcg



Vitamin D
(also known as calciferols)

Vitamin D requires calcium and fats before it can be absorbed in human body. It functions by helps our body to absorb calcium and phosphorus for formation of bones and teeth.

Sources of Vitamin D:
fish oils, eggs, margarines, tuna, salmon and sardines, exposure of skin to sunlight also helps our body to synthesize its own vitamin D.

Deficiency may lead to muscle weakness and tenseness, softening of bones and deformation of skeletons in children.

Daily requirement: 10 mg from the food, but exposure to sunlight is enough.


Vitamin E
(tocopherols)

this vitamin is another types of antioxidants, it helps by preventing the free radicals to change the shape fatty acids and cell membranes and other tissues in the body. Essential also in the health of reproductive system.

sources of tocopherols:
vegetable oils, nuts, seeds and margarine.

Deficiency can lead to hemolytic anemia and nerve damage, usually happens in people who cannot absorb fat.

Daily requirement: 4 mg.



Vitamin K
(phylloquinone, menaquinone)

this vitamin is needed in the formation of certain proteins and needed for normal blood clotting.

sources of vitamin K:
green leafy vegetables, cabbage, brussel sprouts and broccoli.

deficiency can lead to inability of blood to clot, usually it is due to drug therapy or because of disease.

Daily requirement: 70 mg.


So, I hope that this information will guide you on how to get your vitamins, it is essential that you consider them in your diet

More on fats and its usage

Excessive Fats can aggravate, worsen and increase risk of cancer, circulation problems, cirrhosis, heart disease, gout, joint problems, and thrombosis among others. However, in sensible amount fat does provide health benefit to the body.

Among the benefits of fats are:

- provide essential fatty acids for skin and regulating body functions.
- act as a medium for fat-soluble vitamins (A,D,E,K) to be absorbed in the body.
- as a source of energy for the body.

Fats are made up from fatty acids. Useful unsaturated fatty acids are in their polyunsaturated form.
which are:

1. Omega-6 fatty acids derived from linoleic acid (vegetable oils, olive oils, sunflower oils)

2. Omega-3 fatty acids derived from linolenic acid (vegetable oils, soya bean and rapseed oil, walnut, fish oils: sardines, herring, mackerel and salmon)

deficiency in omega-6 fatty acids can lead to poor growth, skin problems, blood clots, and an impaired immune system. BUT TOO much can be as dangerous for the body.

omega-3 acids are required as a structural component for the brain and the retina of the eye during early development). It is found useful in the treatment of heart disease, psoriasis and arthritis.

What types of fats should be decreased in intake?

High saturated fats - meat and dairy foods as it can increase blood cholesterol and inrease the risk of coronary heart disease.

Trans fats - as it can also increase risk of getting heart disease.

What is Trans Fats?

trans fats are fats that is formed by the hardening of oils to make them solid at room temperature mainly to avoid rancidity. This change the unsaturated fatty acids into saturated fatty acids. among the sources of trans fats are: margarine, biscuits, pies, cakes and crisps.

More benefits of Polyunsaturated fats?

unsaturated fats can lower blood cholesterol (olive oil, sunflower oils), they also act as a source for Vitamin E, which is useful for reproductive system and as a protection against heart disease and atherosclerosis.

It is found that high intakes of fish oil may protect against breast cancer and colon cancer.